You Bought It, But Do You Own It?
In June 2012, Kyle Wiens — co-founder of iFixit — cracked open a new MacBook Pro with Retina Display and discovered the RAM was soldered to the motherboard, the battery was glued in, and the storage was proprietary. For the first time in Apple’s laptop history, no component was user-replaceable. Wiens gave the machine a repairability score of 1 out of 10 and published a teardown that called it the least repairable laptop iFixit had ever taken apart.
It was a harbinger. Over the following decade, the trend accelerated across the electronics industry: smartphones with glued-in batteries, tablets with fused screens, laptops with soldered everything, appliances with locked firmware, and agricultural equipment with software that prevented farmers from repairing their own tractors. The products consumers bought became increasingly un-repairable by design.
The consequences were significant. The world generated 62 million tonnes of e-waste in 2022, according to the UN’s Global E-waste Monitor 2024 — up 82% from 2010, rising by roughly 2.6 million tonnes annually, and on track to reach 82 million tonnes by 2030. Only 22.3% of that e-waste was properly collected and recycled, leaving $62 billion in recoverable natural resources unaccounted for. Meanwhile, independent repair shops — the local businesses that once fixed electronics, appliances, and farm equipment — were systematically shut out by manufacturers who restricted access to parts, tools, diagnostic software, and repair documentation.
The right to repair movement emerged in response: a coalition of consumers, independent repair shops, environmental organizations, and legislators demanding that manufacturers make their products repairable and that consumers have the right to repair what they own.
By 2026, the movement has achieved landmark victories on multiple continents — but the fight has expanded from hardware repairability to the far more complex terrain of software, firmware, and digital ownership.
The EU Right to Repair Directive
The EU’s Directive on common rules promoting the repair of goods — adopted on 13 June 2024 and entering into force on 30 July 2024 — is the most comprehensive repair legislation in the world. Member States must transpose it into national law by 31 July 2026. It establishes:
Obligation to repair: Manufacturers must repair products at a reasonable cost, even after the commercial warranty expires, for a defined post-warranty period. This obligation applies to products covered by EU ecodesign regulations listed in the directive’s Annex II — household washing machines, washer-dryers, dishwashers, refrigerating appliances, electronic displays, welding equipment, vacuum cleaners, servers, mobile phones, cordless phones, tablets, and products with batteries for light means of transport such as e-bikes and e-scooters.
Warranty extension for repair: Consumers who choose repair over replacement during the legal guarantee period receive an additional one-year extension of their warranty — a concrete financial incentive to repair rather than discard.
European Repair Platform: The directive creates an online European Repair Platform where consumers can find independent and manufacturer-authorized repairers in their area, reducing the friction of finding repair services.
Ecodesign requirements for electronics: From 20 June 2025, smartphones and tablets sold in the EU must meet stringent requirements under the separate Ecodesign Regulation:
- Batteries that can withstand at least 800 charge-discharge cycles while retaining 80% capacity
- Spare parts available within 5-10 working days, for at least 7 years after the last unit is placed on the market
- Software and security updates for at least 5 years from end of market placement
- Repair and maintenance information available to independent repairers on the same terms as authorized service providers
- Resistance to at least 45 accidental drops without losing functionality
These requirements are expected to extend the average lifespan of a mid-range smartphone from 3.0 to 4.1 years.
Repairability scoring: The EU has introduced an energy label for smartphones and tablets that includes repairability information displayed at the point of sale. France pioneered the concept in January 2021 with its Indice de Réparabilité — a mandatory 1-to-10 score for electronics — and the EU has adopted a harmonized labeling approach that builds on France’s model.
Ban on anti-repair practices: The directive prohibits manufacturers from using contractual clauses, software locks, proprietary components, or other techniques designed to prevent or discourage repair. Notably, it also prohibits impeding the use of second-hand or 3D-printed spare parts by independent repairers.
Apple’s Pivot: From Repair Villain to (Reluctant) Compliance
Apple’s relationship with right to repair illustrates how legislation drives corporate behavior:
2011-2020: Active opposition. Apple lobbied against right to repair legislation in the US and EU. Its products became progressively less repairable — soldered components, proprietary screws, paired parts (replacing a component triggered software that disabled the device unless the repair was done at an Apple Store or authorized provider).
2021-2022: Self Service Repair. In November 2021, Apple announced its Self Service Repair program, making genuine Apple parts, tools, and repair manuals available to individual consumers. The program launched in April 2022, initially covering iPhone 12, iPhone 13, and later the M1 MacBook. The process was criticized for being deliberately cumbersome — the rental tool kit weighed 79 pounds (shipped in two wheeled cases: 43 lbs and 36 lbs), and the procedures were multi-step and complex — but the principle was established.
2024: Parts pairing relaxation. Under regulatory pressure and public criticism, Apple began relaxing parts pairing — the practice of using software to disable components replaced outside Apple’s authorized network. In April 2024, Apple announced that used genuine parts from other devices of the same model could be used for self-service repair without triggering functionality locks.
2024-2025: Hardware redesign for repairability. The iPhone 16 (released September 2024) introduced electrically-released adhesive for the battery — applying a low voltage (even a 9V battery works) between the phone’s aluminum frame and a battery tab releases the adhesive cleanly in about 60-90 seconds, making battery replacement dramatically simpler. Through 2025, Apple expanded Self Service Repair to the M4 Mac lineup (February), iPad (May), and the iPhone 17 lineup (October), with the program now available across the US, Canada, UK, and many European countries.
2025-2026: EU compliance. Apple’s devices now meet the EU’s ecodesign requirements, with standardized USB-C charging (mandated by the EU), extended spare parts availability, and repairability information displayed on product pages and retail packaging in Europe.
Apple’s compliance is real but strategic: the company has designed its repair ecosystem so that Apple-supplied parts and Apple-certified repairs remain the path of least resistance, while technically meeting the requirement that independent repair is possible.
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The Software Frontier
The right to repair began as a hardware issue — access to physical parts, tools, and documentation. But the most significant battleground in 2026 is software:
Firmware Locks and Software Pairing
Modern devices are controlled by firmware — software embedded in the hardware that controls its operation. Manufacturers can use firmware to:
- Disable replaced components: A new screen installed by an independent repairer triggers a firmware check that disables True Tone, Face ID, or auto-brightness because the replacement part is not “paired” to the device in the manufacturer’s database
- Restrict functionality after repair: John Deere’s tractors require dealer-proprietary diagnostic software to complete many repairs — without running the manufacturer’s software after a physical repair, the tractor will not operate
- Force obsolescence: Software updates that degrade performance on older hardware (Apple’s “batterygate” — deliberately throttling older iPhones’ performance — resulted in a $500 million class-action settlement plus a separate $113 million multistate settlement with over 30 state attorneys general)
Digital Rights Management (DRM) and the DMCA
In the US, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) Section 1201 makes it illegal to circumvent digital locks (DRM) — even for the purpose of repairing a product you own. If a manufacturer locks their firmware and you bypass the lock to complete a repair, you may be violating federal law.
The US Copyright Office grants limited exemptions to the DMCA every three years. In October 2024, the 9th Triennial Rulemaking renewed all existing repair exemptions and expanded them — current exemptions allow circumvention for repair of smartphones, tablets, computers, motor vehicles, agricultural equipment, and additional categories. But the exemptions are temporary (expiring October 2027), narrow, and must be re-applied for. The underlying legal framework still treats circumvention as presumptively illegal.
The EU’s approach is fundamentally different: the Right to Repair Directive explicitly prohibits using software to prevent repair, creating a legal framework where the right to repair takes precedence over software locks.
Software Updates and Planned Obsolescence
The right to software updates is an emerging frontier. When a manufacturer stops providing security updates for a device, it becomes unsafe to use (vulnerable to known exploits) even if the hardware functions perfectly. The EU’s 5-year software update mandate for smartphones is a first step, but advocates argue it should be longer — a well-maintained iPhone can physically last 7-10 years.
Android devices face a varied update landscape: Google’s Pixel phones (Pixel 8 and newer) and Samsung’s flagship Galaxy devices now offer 7 years of OS and security updates. But budget and mid-range devices from other manufacturers still receive only 2-3 years of OS updates and 3-4 years of security updates — far short of the hardware’s physical lifespan.
The Agricultural Equipment War
The most emotionally resonant front in the right to repair movement is agricultural equipment. Modern tractors, combines, and harvesters are sophisticated machines controlled by software — and manufacturers (primarily John Deere, Case IH/CNH, and AGCO) have used software locks to force farmers to use manufacturer-authorized dealers for all repairs.
For a farmer in rural Kansas, the nearest authorized John Deere dealer may be 100 miles away. During harvest season — when a broken combine means crops rotting in the field — waiting days for a dealer technician is economically devastating. Farmers who could once repair their own equipment now cannot, because a physical repair (replacing a sensor, swapping a hydraulic pump) requires dealer-proprietary software to complete.
In January 2023, John Deere signed a memorandum of understanding with the American Farm Bureau Federation agreeing to provide farmers and independent repair shops with tools and software for equipment repair. But the agreement drew criticism: the customer diagnostic tool (Customer Service ADVISOR) is inferior to the dealer version (Service ADVISOR) and cannot perform all repairs; annual subscriptions cost up to $3,100; and the Farm Bureau agreed to discourage support for right to repair legislation at state and federal levels — a concession that advocates called a poison pill.
Then, on 15 January 2025, the Federal Trade Commission — joined by the attorneys general of Illinois and Minnesota (with Michigan, Wisconsin, and Arizona joining later) — sued John Deere for maintaining a repair services monopoly. The FTC’s complaint alleges that Deere restricts the full Service ADVISOR diagnostic software to authorized dealers only, forcing farmers to rely on expensive dealer repairs and preventing independent repair shops from competing. The FTC has asked the court to order Deere to make its full diagnostic software available to equipment owners and independent repair facilities.
The case is the most significant federal enforcement action in the right to repair movement to date, and its outcome will set precedent for how antitrust law applies to repair restrictions across industries.
The US State-Level Wave
While federal right to repair legislation has stalled in Congress, US states have moved aggressively. As of 2026, right to repair bills have been introduced in all 50 states, with several landmark laws now in effect:
- Oregon (effective January 2025): The nation’s strongest consumer electronics right to repair law — and the first to explicitly restrict parts pairing
- Colorado (effective January 2026): Broad coverage of digital electronic equipment
- Washington State (signed May 2025): Comprehensive Right to Repair Act
- Connecticut and Texas: Laws taking effect in July and September 2026 respectively
By 2026, more than 25% of Americans live in a state with right to repair protections. The patchwork of state laws is creating compliance pressure on manufacturers — it is increasingly easier to design products for repairability nationwide than to manage state-by-state compliance.
E-Waste and Sustainability
The environmental argument for right to repair is compelling. Electronics manufacturing is resource-intensive: producing a single smartphone requires extracting rare earth minerals, consuming significant energy and water, and generating toxic waste. When a device is discarded because a $30 part cannot be replaced, the environmental cost of manufacturing an entirely new device is orders of magnitude higher than the cost of repair.
The UN’s Global E-waste Monitor 2024 found that e-waste generation is outpacing formal collection and recycling by a factor of nearly five. The metals embedded in 2022’s e-waste alone were worth an estimated $19 billion in copper, $15 billion in gold, and $16 billion in iron — resources that are largely unrecovered.
The EU’s circular economy strategy explicitly links right to repair to sustainability goals. The Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation (ESPR), which entered into force on 18 July 2024, expands repairability and durability requirements far beyond electronics — textiles and apparel (2027), furniture (2028), tyres (2027), and mattresses (2029) are among the initial product categories. The ESPR also introduces Digital Product Passports and, for the first time in the EU, bans the destruction of unsold textiles and footwear.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is right to repair?
Right to Repair: The Movement Goes Digital in 2026 covers the essential aspects of this topic, examining current trends, key players, and practical implications for professionals and organizations in 2026.
Why does right to repair matter?
This topic matters because it directly impacts how organizations plan their technology strategy, allocate resources, and position themselves in a rapidly evolving landscape. The article provides actionable analysis to help decision-makers navigate these changes.
How does the eu right to repair directive work?
The article examines this through the lens of the eu right to repair directive, providing detailed analysis of the mechanisms, trade-offs, and practical implications for stakeholders.
Sources & Further Reading
- EU Right to Repair Directive (Directive 2024/1799)
- EU Ecodesign Requirements for Smartphones and Tablets
- EU Ecodesign for Sustainable Products Regulation (ESPR)
- FTC Sues Deere & Company (January 2025)
- iFixit — Repairability Scores and Teardowns
- Repair.org — Right to Repair Coalition
- Apple — Self Service Repair
- UN Global E-waste Monitor 2024
- France — Indice de Réparabilité
- US Copyright Office — DMCA Section 1201 Exemptions (9th Triennial, 2024)
- PIRG — State of Right to Repair
- Regional E-waste Monitor for the Arab States 2021
- iFixit — Right to Repair in All 50 States
